
Class 
Book 



TTJJ 



GopyrightN", 



COPJRIGHT DEPOSm 




Grizzly Giant," a Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, California 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



BY 



EDWIN W. FOSTER 



GINN & COMPANY 

BOSTON • NEW YORK • CHICAGO • LONDON 



LIBRARY nf COMGRf SS 
Tvim Cooies Rftreived 

JUL 20 1904 

Gooyrftrht Entrv 

CLASS ^ XXc. No. 

COPY B 



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\% 



i 



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COPYRIGHT', 1903 

By EDWIN W. FOSTER 



ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 
54.6 



Cbe ^Itbenactim press 

GINN & COMPANY -CAM- 
BRIDGE • MASSACHUSETTS 



-j-9^^^IU 



PREFACE 

This text has been prepared for the purpose of fur- 
nishing the pupil with the essential facts about tools 
and their uses. However efficient the instruction may 
be and however attentive the pupil, it is impossible for 
him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstra- 
tion the names of tools and technical terms, most of 
which are new to him. This applies with equal force 
to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of 
working. 

The function of the text is to supplement the instruc- 
tion of the teacher. It is intended to gather up and 
arrange in a logical order the facts which the pupil has 
has already been told. By this means these facts will 
become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work 
with a better understanding and make greater progress. 

It is believed that the text can be used to the great- 
est advantage by requiring the pupil to read up the sub- 
jects presented in class immediately after the close of the 
lesson. Frequent rapid reviews and occasional written 
tests are very effective. 



vi PREFACE 

No course of study in the form of a series of models 
is presented. It is hardly possible for any two schools 
to follow the same series of models. Local conditions 
necessarily affect the choice of a course, while new and 
better designs are being brought out continuously. 

The order in which the tools are described in the fol- 
lowing pages is the one that has seemed most natural. 
They may be taken up, however, in any convenient and 
logical order. 

It is with the earnest hope that nature study and 
manual work may be closely correlated, that Part II is 
added. No better period can be selected in which to 
study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than when 
the student is working with wood, learning by experi- 
ence its grain, hardness, color, and value in the arts. 

Occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry, its 
economic aspects, climatic effects, influence on rainfall, 
the flow of rivers, floods, droughts, etc., will be found 
interesting as well as instructive, and such interest 
should be instilled into every American boy and girl. 

The writer is indebted to the Fish, Forest, and Game 
Commission of New York state for the series of Adiron- 
dack lumbering scenes, and to the United States Bureau 
of Forestry for the views of California Big Trees. 

EDWIN \V. FOSTER. 



CONTENTS 

PART I. TOOLS 

PAGE 

Chapter I. Introduction 3 

General directions regarding care of tools and bench. Plan of 
work and division of tools into groups. 

Chapter II. Measuring and Marking Tools 5 

The rule : divisions ; method of using. The try-square : method 
of handling. The framing square. The marking gauge. The bevel. 

Chapter III. Cutting Tools 11 

Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers; 
method of holding. Backsaw ; use of bench hook. The turning saw. 
The plane : use of cap iron ; names of parts. Adjustment of plane. 
Use of lever and adjusting screw ; positions for planing. The jack 
plane. The smooth plane. Jointers ; action of short and long 
planes. The block plane. The wooden plane. The chisel : size of 
cutting angle ; effect of careless sharpening. The framing and firmer 
chisels ; proper positions for horizontal and vertical cutting. Sharp- 
ening on oilstone. Brace and bit. Center and auger bits ; gimlet 
and countersink bits. The spokeshave. 

Chapter IV. Miscellaneous Tools and Methods of Work ... 31 

The hammer ; use of nail punch. The mallet. The screw-driver. 
Sandpaper, use of. Squaring up stock ; method explained in detail. 
Laying out work ; method of laying out a typical joint. Securing 
parts ; use of glue and hand screws. Nails ; method of using cut nails. 
Screws ; method of using round-head and flat-head screws. Mechan- 
ical drawing. The drawing instruments explained, and method of 
making complete working drawings described. Scale drawings. 

vii 



viii CONTENTS 



PAET II. WOOD 

PAGE 

Chapter V. Lumbering and Milling 51 

The forest ; felling trees and floating logs to the mill. The form- 
ing and breaking up of log jams. The log boom and modern saw- 
mills. Timber and lumber defined. Annual rings ; medullary rays ; 
formation of grain. Characteristics and defects in wood. Warping 
and shrinkage. 

Chapter VI. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Oaks 65 

White oak. Post oak. Mossy-cup oak. Black and black-jack 
oak. Red oak. Scarlet and pin oaks. Chestnut oak. Live oak. 

Chapter VJI. Broad-Leaved Trees : the Maples 76 



Sugar and Norway maples. Silver and red maples. Sycamore 
maple. Moosewood. Maple keys. Ash-leaved maple. Japan maples. 

Chapter VIII. Broad-Leaved Trees having Compound Leaves . 85 

Horse-chestnut. Buckeye. The hickories. Black walnut and but- 
ternut. Locust. Honey locust. Ash. 

Chapter IX. Broad-Leaved Trees having Simple Leaves ... 94 

Elm. The birches. Beech. Ironwood. Buttonball. Sweet gum. 
Tulip. Basswood. Willow. The poplars. Sassafras. Mulberry. 

Chapter X. The Evergreens Ill 

White pine. Georgia pine. Yellow pine. Hemlock. Spruce. 
Cypress. Balaam, fir. The cedars. 

Chapter XL The Big Trees of California 123 



ELEMEI^TARY WOODWORKING 

Pakt I 



CHAPTER I 

INTRODUCTION 

In order to obtain good results in the using of tools 
it is necessary to know their construction, how to prop- 
erly sharpen and adjust them, and the correct method 
of handling them. It is also essential to know how to 
lay out and work the material or stock. Carelessness 
or a lack of knowledge is invariably followed by a 
failure. It is more important at first to work carefully 
and accurately than rapidly. 

" Tools are made to be used, not abused." They 
must be kept clean and sliarp and should be used only 
for the purpose intended. Wipe them off occasionally 
with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting. 
Put away all tools not in use and keep the top of the 
bench clean. Do not mark it with a pencil or scratch 
it with a knife. Do not cut into it with the chisel 
or allow other tools to mark or deface it. When using 
glue, shellac, or similar materials, cover the top of the 
bench ; or, better still, do the work on a table provided 
for that puicpose. 



4 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

The plan of work in making all models is in general 
the same and is as follows : 

First. ^' Squaring up" the stock. 
Second. "Laying out" the work. 
Third. Cutting to the lines. 

When the article is composed of two or more pieces a 
fourth step may be added, namely, fitting and securing 
the parts. 

The tools used may be divided into three groups, as 
follows : 

First. Laying-out tools. These include the rule, try-square, mark- 
ing gauge, bevel, and knife. 

Second. Cutting tools. In this group are the saw, plane, chisel, 
spokeshave, bit, and knife. 

Third. Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet, screw- 
driver, brace (or bitstock), and others not so common. 



CHAPTER II 

MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS 

1. The Rule. The standard unit of length is the yard, 
but the foot is commonly used for all measurements 
in woodwork. If the rule be twelve inches long it is 
known as a foot rule, and if twenty-four inches long 
it is called a two-foot rule. The inches are subdivided 
into halves, quarters, eighths, and in some cases six- 
teenths. Rules are usually of boxwood or maple, with 



Fig. 1. The Rule 

brass joints, and are commonly made to fold once or 
twice. 

The rule is quite thick, and if laid flat upon the work 
to be measured errors will usually follow. It should 
be stood on edge so that the pencil or knife point may 
touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same time. 
The proper position when laying out measurements is 



6 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

shown in the sketch (Fig. 2). Consecutive measure- 
ments should be laid off without moving the rule. 



^ / / 






/././. 



(IHIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIIlillllilillllllilliillilliliiliH 



STOCK 



I I 



RULE 

I I I I I I I 



I I I Xl I I I 



STOCK 



Fig. 2. Methods of using the Rule : A, incorrect; i>', correct 

2. The Try-Square. The try-square has two distinct 
uses : first, to act as a guide for the pencil or knife 






Fig. 3. The Try-Square 

point in laying out lines across the grain at 
right angles to the edge, as shown in Fig. 4 ; 
second, for testing or trying the adjoining 
sides to see if they are square with each 
other. 




MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS 7 

The try-square may be made entirely of iron or 
steel, but sometimes the beam A is of wood with a 
brass strip to protect it and to take the wear. The 




Fig. 4. Methods of using the Try-Square 

blade B is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into 
inches and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made 
in several sizes, the most convenient for general use 
being six inches. 

In using the try-square the beam should be held 
firmly against the face or edge of the stock. When 
working near the end of the piece, if the beam projects, 
reverse its position. For nice, accurate work the knife 
point instead of the pencil should be used for lining. 

When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it 
is first necessary to mark or square clear around it with 
the knife and try-square. In doing this the beam of 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



the try-square must be used against the work face and 
joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one 



11^ 



Fig. 5. The Framing Square 

piece are called framing squares, and are used by 
carpenters and others for rough or large work. 
3. The Marking Gauge. The marking gauge 
is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. ^ is the gauge 
stick, B the gauge block, S the set screw, and 
P the marking point, or spur. The gauge stick 



ililil 



Fig. 6. The Marking Gauge 

is graduated like a rule into inches and frac- 
tions, beginning at the steel marking point; 
but as the latter is not always exactly in the 
right place the graduations are not entirely 
reliable. It is safer then to set the gauge 
with the rule in the manner shown in Fig. 7. 



MEASURINCi AND MARKING TOOLS 9 

Hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule 
in right. Place end of rule against gauge block and 



Gauge Stick 



B 






Rule 



2 



(D 



CS^ Set Screw 
Fig. 7. Setting the Marking Gauge 

the measurement desired at spur. Turn set screw. The 
gauge is then accurately set. In the cut the gauge is set 
at one inch and is ready for use. 

To gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold 
the tool firmly, with thumb and forefinger encircling 
gauge block. Tip the tool 
away from you until the 
marking point (spur) barely 
touches the wood and push 
the tool away from (never 
toward) you. The line 
made should be as fine as 
a knife line. A little prac- ^^^- ^- «^^^^"S '^'' ^^'^^^ ^^^^^ 
tice is needed to give the proper control, as the marking 
point tends to follow the grain of the wood, which is 
usually not straight. 




10 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



A good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock 
as a practice block, l^yii^g o^^^ lines a quarter of an inch 
apart, then an eighth, and finally a sixteenth. 

4. The Bevel. The bevel differs from the try-square in 
having a movable blade. 




Fig. 0. The Bevel 

This tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle 
from zero to 180 degrees. The blade may be fixed 
firmly at any desired angle by simply turning the set 
screw. The method of using it is similar to that of 
the try-square. 



CHAPTER III 

CUTTING TOOLS 

5. Saws. The saw might be described as a successioix 
of chisels, one back of the other. We can readily under- 
stand the action of the saw by making cuts with a nar- 
row chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as shown 
in Fig. 10 at a. 





Fig. 10. Cutting with and across the Grain with a Narrow Chisel 

The little pieces of wood removed in this way are 
similar to the sawdust made by the saw, the only differ- 
ence being that in the saw the teeth are narrower and 
the little pieces consequently smaller, and instead of one 
chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time. 

A saw with these chisel-shaped teeth, and used for 
cutting along the grain, is called a ripsaiv. 

11 



12 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

That this tool will not cut so readily across the grain 
may easily be proved by again resorting to the narrow 
chisel and attempting to repeat the first experiment. 
The wood will act as shown in Fig. 10 at 6, splitting 
along the grain in both directions. It is quite evident, 
then, that a tool for cutting across the grain must be 
constructed in some other way. 

Continuing this experiment, let us cut the fibers with 
a knife point in two parallel lines across the grain. 




Fig. 11. The Saw 

close together, as at c. It will be found that the wood 
between these lines may now be easily removed with the 
narrow chisel. This fact is made the basis on which 
we construct the crosscut saw. Every tooth is sharp- 
ened to a point, one on the right side, the next on 
the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points 
designed to cut the fibers, as was done in our experi- 
ment with the knife. Fig. 12 shows the end view of the 
crosscut teeth enlarged. Observe that not only are 
the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but 



CUTTING TOOLS 13 

each tooth is bent outward from the body of the saw. 
This bending is called set, and is designed to make 
the saw cut, or kerf, wider than the thickness of the 
saw, that the latter may pass easily through the wood 
after the teeth have done their work. If it were not 
for this set, the fibers would spring back against the 
body of the saw after the teeth had passed and make 
the work very laborious. When a saw is properly set 
it should pass through the wood easily. 



-^^-t- -^ ^- 



M ^A^/ 



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LA 

End view Side view End view Side view 

Fig. 12. Teeth of Crosscut Saw Fig. 13. Teeth of Ripsaw 

The teeth of the ripsaw are also set, but, as will be 
seen in the sketch, the bottoms are flat like a chisel 
instead of pointed like those of the crosscut teeth. 

Beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth, 
the side views, which are also different, are shown in 
Figs. 12 and 13. 

We are inclined to think of the saw as a very com- 
monplace article, yet a careful examination will prove 
that the greatest care and skill are needed in its man- 
ufacture. Observe that the body, which must be of 
tlie best steel, tapers, being considerably wider at the 



14 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



handle than at the opposite end. This is to give 
strength, and to prevent huckliiig, or bending, as the 
tool is pushed forward. ^ 




Fig. 14. Body of Saw, showing Tapers 

Most delicate measurements must be made, however, 
to discover that not only the width but the thickness 
increases from A to B, and decreases from C to D. 
How carefully this tapering must be done can be real- 
ized when we know that the difference in thickness 
from ^ to ^ is only three one -thousandths of an inch, 
and from C to D twelve one-thousandths at end A 

and five one-thou- 
sandths at end B. 

The saw should 
be held in the right 
hand, with the left 
grasping the board. 
The thumb of the 

Fig. 15. Method of holding the Saw j^f^ j^^^^^ ^^^^ ^^ 

guide, the saw is tilted, as shown in Fig. 15, and drawn 
toward the worker at the first stroke. This tool should 




CUTTING TOOLS 



15 



be used without exerting much pressure, in accordance 
with the general rule that we do our best work with 
tools when we work easily and deliberately. 




iijljljljlli|llllliillil!li!|llli!lllillliill!llil|lliilillillilllllllillllii^ 



Fig. 16. The Backsaw 

Many varieties of saws are designed for special pur- 
poses, including those which cut stone and metal. 

6. Backsaw. 
The backsaw is a 
crosscut saw with 
small teeth, and 
has a heavy steel 
backpiece, Fig. 
17, to prevent 
bending. In this 
respect it differs 
from the ordinary 




Fig. 17. Method of using the Backsaw and 
Bench Hook 



crosscut varie- 
ties, which bend 
readily. The purpose of the Ijacksaw is to make fine, 
straight cut§ in delicate, accurate work. The steel 



16 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



back B is necessary on account of the thin blade, but 
on account of the thickness of B no cut can be made 

deeper than the 
line O. This tool 
will cut in any 
direction with 
reference to the 
grain, but is pri- 
marily a crosscut 
saw. 

7. The Turning 

Fig. 18. The Bench Hook ^^^ l^ Ordinary 

work the saw is supposed to cut to a straight line, but 
there are certain classes of work where it is desirable 





Fig. 19. The Turning Saw 

to follow a curved line, and consequently a special tool is 
necessary. The turning saw shown in the cut is used for 



CUTTING TOOLS 



17 



this purpose. The handles holding the saw blade may 
be turned in any direction with reference to the frame. 
8. The Plane. The plane reduces our rough lumber 
to planed, or dressed^ stock. The cutting part is a 
thin, wide chisel called the j^lcme 
iron. 

Fig. 20 shows the position of 
the plane iron in operation. As- 
sume the iron to be moving in 
the direction of the arrow on a 
piece of wood. The sharp point 
would enter the board and, should 
the grain be unfavorable, start 
a splitting action, as shown at a. 
We wish to smooth the wood 
instead of roughing it, and must 

in some way stop the splitting. This is accomplished 
by placing a cap iron on the plane iron, as shown at I. 

The cap bends and breaks 
the shaving before the 
splitting action has a 
chance to begin, and gives 
the spiral form so familiar 
in wood shavings. 
The cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a 
stout screw, ajid this whole combination is fastened in 




Fig. 20. The Plane Iron in 
Action 




EiG. 21. Plane Iron, Cap, and Set 

Screw 



18 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



the throat of the plane by a clamp (Fig. 22). The open- 
ing on the bottom of the plane through whicli the cut- 
ting edge protrudes is called the mouth of the plane. 




Toe --Mouth 

Fig. 22. Sectional Views of Iron Plane 



9. Adjustment of Plane. There are two ways of adjust- 
ing a modern iron plane, — by means of the set screw s^ 
and of the lever I. 



CUTTING TOOLS 19 

Screw s lowers or raises the plane iron so that we 
may take a thin or thick shaving, and lever I straightens 
the iron, which is liable to project more on one side 
than on the other, and will then take a shaving thicker 
on one side than on the other. 

Before using the plane always examine it carefully. 
Invert the tool, holding it toward the light with the 
toe toward you, and glance along the bottom. If the 
iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not, 
move the lever until it is. For a thin shaving the cut- 
ting edge should appear as a black line of uniform 
thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the brass screw 
until the iron projects slightly. 

In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand 
with the right side to the bench and with the shoulders 
thrown back. Let the pressure of the left hand be 
greater at the beginning and that of 
the right hand at the end of the stroke. 
The tool should rest perfectly flat on 
the wood from start to finish. 

10. The Jack Plane. The ordinary ^^^ ^s. irons of 
plane iron has a straight edge, as shown Smooth and Jack 
at a. Fig. 23, but when a large quantity 
of wood is to be removed the iron is sharpened in 
the shape shown at h. This curved iron will cut out 
the wood in. hollows, leaving ridges between, and it 



20 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



is necessary to follow this jack plane with a finer one 
having a straight edge in order to smooth the surface. 
The jack plane might be called a roughing plane. 




Fig. 24. Kelative Sizes of Smooth and Jack Planes 
The lower figure is a jack plane 

11. The Smooth Plane. The smoothing plane is shorter 
than the jack plane, its object being to smooth the sur- 
face without regard to straightening it, as it is supposed 
that the straightening has previously been done. The 



CUTTING TOOLS 



21 



cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a six- 
teenth to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting 
edge of the plane iron. 

12. Jointers. For straightening very rough and un- 
even stock a long plane is necessary (Fig. 25). In the 
illustration let line ah rep- 



resent the edge of a very 
uneven board. A short 
plane c would simply fol- 
low the hills and hollows, 
smoothing but not straight- 
ening it, while a long plane, 




Fig. 25. Action of Short and Long 
Planes 



as shown at d, would merely cut off the top of the high 
places, as shown by the dotted line, and would not touch 
the bottoms of the hollows until all the elevations were 
leveled ; in other words, until the surface was straight- 
ened. Such planes, which 
are often three feet long or 
more, are called jointers. 
13. The Block Plane. To 

Fig. 26. The Block Plane g^^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^f ^ p^^^^ ^f 

stock the conditions are quite different from those 
just described where we were planing with the grain. 
In end planing no cap iron is necessary, the plane 
iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel 
side up. 




22 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

This tool requires more care than the others, as the 
stroke is usually quite short, and if the cutting edge is 
a b allowed to reach the farther corner, 

V^ /^^^ the latter will be broken off. 

Illilii ll li l lli n "^^ avoid this error the plane 

must be lifted up before the end 
ililililillli of the stroke, as shown by the 

Fig. 27. Method of using dotted line a. The piece is then 
Block Plane reversed, and planed as shown by 

arrow h. In this way the whole end is smoothed, with- 
out ruining the corners. 

Besides these standard planes there are many patent 
and special ones for cutting tongues, grooves, beads, etc. 
14. The Wooden Plane. Although the iron-bodied 
planes just described are now in common use, the old- 
fashioned wooden plane is still the favorite of many 
woodworkers. 




Fig. 28. The Wooden Plane 



This tool, while lacking some of the adjustments of 
the iron plane, was much simpler and contained a 
smaller number of parts. 



CUTTING TOOLS 23 

The iron and cap were held in position by a wooden 
wedge, which was driven in by a hght blow of the 
hammer. The workman removed the iron and wedge 
by turning the plane upside down and striking the 
forward part a light downward blow on the bench, 
while the thickness of the shaving was increased by 
a light tap on the plane iron. 

One of the chief objections to the wooden plane was 
its liability to wear and warp, so that it became neces- 
sary to straighten, or joint, the face. No such diffi- 
culty is encountered in the ^ 

iron-bodied plane. \/^>^a incorrect \ 

15. The Chisel. The chisel ^^'^ ^ ^ 

is one of the simplest forms ^ 



^..^^"^a Correct I 

of cutting tools. The size of ^^- ^ 

the angle a depends on the yw. 20. Cutting Angle of Chisel 
kind of material to be cut. 

A chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an 
angle of from 30 to 35 degrees. 

By careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes 
formed, as shown at h. 

The cutting angle is then no sharper than if the 
chisel were shaped like that shown by dotted lines, 
and care must always be taken when sharpening to 
keep the line cd straight, so that angle a will be the 
real cutting an^le. 



24 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



Two classes of chisels are in common use: the /ram- 
ing chisel used for heavy work^ such as the frames of 
buildings ; and the firmer chisel. The framing chisel 




Fig. 30, The Framing Chisel 




Fig. 31. The Firmer Chisel 

is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of with- 
standing the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is 

designed for finer and lighter 
work without the mallet. 

The chisel must be sharp 
if we wish to do good and 
accurate work, and a cut on 
the hand made by such a 
sharp tool is liable to be a 
deep one. Special care must 
be used in handling it, keep- 

FiG. 32. Proper Position for Hori- i^g ^Oth hands away from 

zontai Chiseling the Cutting edge, as shown 

in the sketch, and placing it when not in use where it 
cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the 
student's feet. 




CUTTING TOOLS 



25 



Fig. 32 shows the method of using the tool on hori- 
zontal work, and Fig. 33 for vertical cutting. For this 
kind of work only a small portion of 
the cutting edge can be used, the stu- 
dent judging for himself how heavy a 
cut to take by the hardness of the wood 
and amount of strength required. Good 
work can never be done when one has 
to exert all his strength on the tool. 
The best results are ob- 
tained when we work 
easily. 

Better work can usu- 
ally be done with the 
chisel if, instead of push- 
ing it straight ahead or 
straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to 
secure a slight paring action. 





iiHIIIIIIIIIIIHIIIIIIIII' 



Fig. 33. Proper Position for 
Vertical Chiselino^ 





Fig. 34. Sharpening Chisel on Oilstone 

When the chisel becomes dull, unless its edge has 
been nicked or ruined by some accident, it is only 
necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone. Hold the tool 



26 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



with the bevel flat on the stone. A drop or two of oil 
may be used to lubricate the stone, the tool being worked 
back and forth on the face of it. Especial care must 
be taken to avoid a rocking motion, which will produce 
a curved edge instead of a flat one. 




Fig. 35. Common Forms of the Brace 

After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side 
firmly on the stone, and draw toward you. This is to 
straighten the wire edge which has been turned over 
by the rubbing. The wire edge may then be removed 



CUTTING TOOLS 



27 



by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block 
of wood. When the chisel is nicked or very dull it 
must be ground on the grindstone. 

16. Brace and Bit. The old-fashioned augers and gim- 
lets have given way to the modern brace and bit. 




Fig. 36. The Center Bit 

The brace, which is sometimes called the bitstock, 
allows both hands to be used continuously, which was 
not true of the old-fashioned auger. Several varieties 
of the brace are in use, the ones shown in the cuts 
being common. 

Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the name 
l^eing applied to a tool which is to be turned by the 




Fig. 37. The Auger Bit 

brace. The old-fashioned center bit shown in the cut 
possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool. 

The sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be 
accurately placed. The lip on the outer edge cut the 
fibers in a circle before the chisel edge began to remove 




28 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

the wood, and so a smooth hole could be bored ; but 
considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool 
through the wood. 

The progress that has been made in the manufacture 
of tools can be easily appreciated by comparing this 
center bit with the modern auger bit. 

Referring to the sketch (Fig. 38), B B are two knife 
points, or nihs^ which cut the wood fibers before the 
chisel edges, or lijjs, (7, can touch 
the wood. The point A allows us 
to accurately place the center of 
Fig. 38. Details of the hole where we wish it, and the 
screw back of A draws the tool into 
the wood as it revolves. This part is known as the 
spur, or luorm. On this class of bits no pressure is 
necessary. 

The opposite end of the bit, called the shank, fits into 
the brace. Any tool with such a shank, and designed 
for use with the brace, is a bit. We have screw -driver 
bits, gimlet bits, auger bits, etc. 

On the shank of an auger bit will be found a number. 
This is the numerator of a fraction whose denominator 
is 16. If we find this number to be 4, it is a j^, or a 
|-inch bit. If the number is 16, we have a |-|, or a 
one-inch bit, etc., always referring to the diameter of the 
hole which the tool will bore. 



CUTTING TOOLS 



29 



In using the brace and bit care must be taken to see 
that the bit shank is far enough in the brace to be fas- 
tened securely, and that the tool is held at right angles 
to the wood. It may appear from the front to be per- 
fectly vertical, yet by stepping to one side and looking 
at it from another j)osition it will frequently be found 
far from vertical. When starting a hole it is well to 
do this several times until assured that the tool is work- 
ing in a true upright position. 



Fig. 39. The Gimlet Bit 




Eio. 40. The Countersink Bit 

The gimlet bit is used for small holes, such as we 
make for screws. In this case the hole must be coiin- 
tersunk to receive the screw head, when flat-headed 
screws are used. The countersink bit is shown in the 
cut, and its purpose is more fully explained in the chap- 
ter on screws. 

17. The Spokeshave. The spokeshave is practically a 
short plane with handles at the side so that the tool 
may be drawn or pushed. It may be adjusted by 
means of screws to take light or heavy shavings, and 



30 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

is used principally to smooth curved surfaces. The 
forming of a hammer handle is a good illustration of 




Fig. 41. The Iron Spokeshave 

the kind of work it will do. It may he worked toward 
or away from the worker, and is an exceedingly handy 
tool. 



CHAPTER IV 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 

18. Hammer. The carpenter's hammer is used prm- 
cipally to drive or withdraw nails. 

The various trades have hammers made specially for 
their needs; thus we have machinists', roofers', up- 
holsterers', stonecutters', and other ham- 
mers, but the claw hammer shown in the 




u^;!-^^.. i^^^ii^.^ '" "'" i 



Fig. 42. The Claw Hammer 

sketch is the one commonly used by work- 
ers in wood. 
The head a (Fig. 43) is of steel, with the face h spe- 
cially hardened so that it may not be dented by the nails. 
Notice the length of the handle h. This length did 
not simply happen. Had it been intended to hold the 
tool in the position shown at A, the handle would not 
have been made so long. The proper position is that 
shown at B. Position A is frequently taken by begin- 
ners, and should be studiously avoided. 

31 



32 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



A nail may be withdrawn with the claw, and be 
kept straight for further use by a little care. Having 



Withdrawing 
a Nail 




Fig. 43. Using the Hammer 



started the nail slightly, j^lace a small block of wood 
under the hammer head, as shown at C. Should the 
nail be an unusually long one, the size of the block 
may be increased as the nail comes out. 



Fig. 44. Common Forms of Nail Punch, or "Set" 

In driving nails care must always be taken not to mar 
the surface of the wood by striking the nail head after 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 33 



it has become even with the surface, as this produces a 
depression and ruins any fine surface. 

If it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface, 
a nail punch, or set, is used. This is always necessary 
when the sui'face is to be planed after the nailing. 

19. The Mallet. The mallet might be described as a 
hammer with a wooden head, and is used whenever we 
wish to dehver a blow which shall be 
less concentrated than that of the 




Hammer. It is used in certain kinds 
of heavy chiseling, such as house 
framing, and gives a blow which does not shatter the 
tool handle as a hammer would. 

The use of the mallet is well illustrated by the mak- 
ing of a mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet 
being used to cut the opening known as the mortise, as 
shown in Fig. 46. 

20. Screw-Driver. The screw-driver is perhaps the 
most common of household tools, and is probably abused 
more than any other. The handle is usually flattened 
so that the hand may grip it more tightly, but occasion- 
ally a round or fluted handle is seen. 



34 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



Patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in 
recent years, but where considerable force is required 
the brace and screw-driver bit are more effective. 




Fig. 46. Cutting a Mortise 



21. Sandpaper. " Sandpaper is the last resort of a 
poor workman." This statement has been made by 
many teachers to many thousands of students, and is 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 85 

true in many cases ; but there are certain kinds of work 
where sandpaper, if properly used, is allowable. 




Fig. 47. The Screw-])river 

It must always be kept in mind that a surface which 
has been sandpapered has become "gritty," i.e. the fine 
sand has come off and is more or less imbedded in the 
wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done 
until all tool work has been finished, as the grit will 
take the edge off the best tool, 
and the finer the edge the more 
quickly will it be ruined. 

Again, a sandpapered surface 
is always a scratched surface, 
and the finest of scratched sur- 
faces cannot compare with the 
perfectly smooth, satiny sur- 
face produced by a sharp plane. 
However, there are many places / / / \ \ — ^ 

where neither the plane nor 
spokeshave can be used, and ^'^^\, 'x.^ xeicisemvo vmg 

i ' the Use of Sandpaper 

here it is allowable to use sand- 
paper after the tool work has been carried as far as 
practicable. 




36 ELEMENTARY WOOUWOKKING 

Fig. 48 is a case where sandpaper may be used with 
propriety. The bevels in this lesson are to be chiseled 
and then sandpapered with a sandpaper block, — the 
block in this case being simply a small piece of wood 
with square edges, about which the sandpaper is fastened 
closely. 

Curved articles, such as the hammer handle, must dis- 
pense with the block, the sandpaper being held in the 
hand. 

22. Squaring up Stock. This term simply means to 
reduce a piece of sawed or rough lumber to one having 
smooth, flat sides at right angles to each other, and of 
definite length, breadth, and thickness (see Fig. 49). 

First. Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or jointer, 
and smooth with smoothing phxne. This face, called the 
working face, becomes the basis from which all the other 
sides are squared. 

Second. Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with 
the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must 
be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the 
try-square, and must be square with the working face at 
every point. 

Third. Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge 
block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face. 

Fourth. Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn, 
squaring the edge with working face. 

Fifth. Set gauge to required tliickness and gauge line on both 
edges from working face. 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF AVORK 37 

Sixth. Plane face parallel to working face down to the two 
gauge lines. This gives the required thickness. It only 
remains now to secure the required length. 







y^'^.^'-y^.y'^tns' 



Joint Edge 




H 



Fig. 49. The Successive Steps in squaring up Stock 



Seventh. Square knife line around the four smoothed sides with 
knife and try-square as near one end as possible, carefully 
observing the precautions given in Chapter II. 

Eighth. From the line just drawn, measure the required length 
along edge of working face and square a line on the four 
sides at the .last point, as at first end. 



38 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



Ninth. Block-plane first end to knife lines. If the second line 
is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block, 
saw to the knife line with hacksaw, and block-plane smooth 
and square. 



^" 



-f- 



No.l 



^ 



No.2 



if 



^^f,;> fQ 




2r^ 



^^ 



t 



The above method should 
always be followed in pre- 
paring stock for laying out 
the exercise. 

23. Laying Out. Let it be 
assumed that the exercise to 
be executed is the middle lap 



"^ joint shown at J., Fig. 50. 

First. Square up stock, leaving 
ends rough. 

Second. Layoff the length of each 
piece, in this case 4^ inches, 
with an eighth of an inch 
between for sawing, as at a. 

Third. Square all the lines 
around four sides. 

Fourth. Saw to end lines and 
block-plane ends. 

Fifth. Lay off width of opening 
in piece No. 1 and square 
lines across face and half- 
way down on both edges. 
Sixth. Measure length of lap on No. 2, square the line across 
bottom and halfway up the sides. Gauge the horizontal 
lines II from working face. 




Fig. 50. Successive Steps in lay- 
ing out and making a Middle 
Lap Joint 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 39 



Seventh. Saw pieces No. 1 and No. 2 apart and block-plane ends. 
Eighth. Saw to the lines, chisel, and fit the pieces. 

Although the above is the method of laying out a typi- 
cal joint, each problem will require special treatment and 
here the student will be 
guided by his instructor. 

24. Securing Parts. 
Many articles made of 
wood consist of several 
pieces fastened together. 

When two pieces are 
fitted together the sur- 
faces of contact are called 
a joint. There are many 
kinds and shapes in join- 
ery, and usually some 
extra fastening is re- 
quired to hold the pieces 
together. These aids are 
glue, nails, and screws ; 
while on heavy construction still others, such as wedges, 
pins, and dowels are used. The first three are com- 
monly used in small work. 

Glue is of two kinds, fish and animal. Both are made 
from refuse matter, — animal glue being manufactured 
from such products as bone, horn, hoofs, and hide. 




Fig. 51. The Hand Screw 



40 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



The dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved 
in water and heated, being applied while hot. Liquid 
glues sold in cans ready for use are now very common 
and require no heating. 

In making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold 
the pieces tightly together until the glue has setj or hard- 
ened, and as this takes some time, hand screws built on 
the principle of the vise are resorted to. Fig. 52 shows 



d 



II 



^M 



^w^m 




Fi«. 52. Method of 



the Hand Screw 



two pieces glued together and fastened in a jiair of 
hand screws. Care must always be taken to keep the 
jaws of the latter parallel. At a this is shown done 
properly, while at h is shown a careless method which, 
of course, will spoil the joint. 

In gluing on the end grain a preliminary, or sizing, 
coat of glue must first be made to fill up the pores, 
which act very mucli like a sponge. This coat, should 
be allowed to dry, or partially dry, before applying the 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 41 




Fig. 53. 

Miter Joint 
at Corner 
of Picture Frame 



final coat; otherwise the pieces will be held weakly, 
if at all. Beginners are inclined to use too large a 
quantity, and this tendency should be avoided. 

In some cases nails are used together 
with the glue, as at the corners of pic- 
ture frames. It is customary in this 
instance to nail in only one direction, 
as shown in Fig. 53. 

25. Nails. The nails in common use 
are of two kinds, cut and wire. 

Two views of a cut nail are shown in Fig. 54, a being 
the side view and h the front view. Notice that in the 
front view the sides converge like a wedge, 
while in the side view they are parallel. 
Care must always be taken that the 
point does not enter the wood as shown 
at c, as the wood will be split by the 
wedge action; d shows the proper method. 
Steel wire nails are now in general use. 
They are made from wire and are conse- 
quently round in section, with a compara- 
tively sharp point. There are two distinct 
kinds, named ^a^ head and hung head. 
Flat-head wire nails, as the name implies, have thin, 
flat heads, which prevent the nail from being driven 
beneath the s^irface. 




Fig. 54. Use of 
Cut Nails 



42 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



Bimg-head wire nails, or hrads as the smaller sizes 
are called, have very small heads, which allow the nail 
to be sunk below the surface. This is done by means 
of the nail punch, or set, and is necessary when the sur- 
face is to be planed after the nailing. 

26. Screws. Screws are much used, and allow the 
pieces to be readily taken apart. They are divided 
into two classes, flat liead and round head, and are of 
steel or brass. Steel screws are either hliied or bright. 
Bright screws are polished and blued screws are pro- 
duced by treating the bright ones with heat or an acid. 




9b A B C 

Fig. 55. Methods of using Screws 

Fig. 55 shows a flat-head screw at a and a round-head 
at h. Flat heads are used for the more common work 
where it is desirable to have the screw head flush (even) 
with the surface or below it, while round heads are used 
where this is not necessary. In the latter case round 
heads are used partly because they are more ornamental. 
Flat heads must always be flush or below the surface, 
and in all but the softest woods it is necessary not only 
to bore a hole for the screw, but also to countersink it 
with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 43 



head. Two methods of fastening with flat-head screws 
are shown in Fig. 55. 

Sketch A shows the two pieces of wood in position, 
the hole bored in upper piece (only) and countersunk ; 
B shows the screw in position. In this case the screw 
head is visible. It is occasionally desirable to hide the 
screw entirely. Sketch O shows the hole prepared for 
the screw ; D shows the screw in position and a circular 
wooden plug driven in over it. 
The plug is then leveled with the 
surface and the screw completely 
hidden. 

27. Mechanical Drawing. A me- 
chanical, or working, drawing is 
quite different from a pictorial 
drawing such as an artist produces. 
The artist's drawing represents ob- 
jects as they appear, while the 
mechanical drawing represents 
them as they really are. Things in nature do not look 
as they are. For example, when we stand on a railroad 
track the rails appear to converge until they seem to 
meet in the distance. We know that this is not the 
case, that the rails are really everywhere equally distant. 
The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the hori- 
zon is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive, 




CI =1= Z] 

c ^=z: zi 

c ZI=ZI Z) 
c == D 
c =r=; ID 

c i^zz: ZI 
iz ziizz: zi 



Fig. 56. The Difference be- 
tween Perspective and 
Mechanical Drawing 



44 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 




drawing takes no account of perspective. In Fig. 56 
a is the perspective representation of a track, while h 
shows a track by mechanical drawing. 

In a working drawing more than one 
view is necessary to show the true shape 
of an object. 

In Fig. 57 is shown the mechanical draw- 
ing of a cylinder, — the front view, as its 
name implies, being the image it would 
make in a mirror held before it vertically, 

Fig. 57. Median- t,i, • ,i« •< ii i- 

icai Drawing of ^"^ ^^^^ ^^P ^^^^ ^^^ image it would make in 
a Cylinder a mirror held directly over it horizontally. 



Top 



■ Vr^. 



Front 




a 



Side 



« t 



1 



Fig. 58. Mechanical Drawing of End Lap Joint 



Occasionally three views are necessary. Fig. 58 a 
shows the front, top, and side views of an end lap joint. 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 45 




Fig. 59. Drawing Board showing T Square and Triangles in Position 

The complete working drawing of this joint, with all 
the necessary dimensions, is shown at h. 

In making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy 
is required and special instruments are necessary. 

The drawing board on which the paper is 
fastened must be perfectly flat, with one of 
its edges straight. 






Fig. go. The T Square 

The T square is used for guiding the pencil 
or pen when drawing horizontal lines. 
The two triangles 1 1 (Fig. 59) are used for drawing 
vertical and oblique lines, and a pair of compasses is 




46 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



needed for circles and arcs of circles. Each triangle con- 
tains one right angle, the one on the left being known 
as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining 
angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively. 
The one on the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle 
because it has two forty-five-degree angles. 

The position of T square and triangle when drawing 
vertical lines is that shown in the sketch, the line being 

drawn from the T square 
upward. Horizontal 
lines are drawn from left 
to right. 

The rule used in me- 
chanical drawing is 
called a scale, and should 
not be used for draw- 
ing lines. Its purpose 
is measuring. 
In making a drawing the first step is to determine 
the spacing. The size of the paper may be measured, 
the number of views are known, and also the size of 
each. The views should be so arranged that the spaces 
between will be in good proportion. It is a good plan 
to make first a free-hand sketch, putting on dimen- 
sions and figuring the spaces before beginning actual 
work on the mechanical drawing. Fig. 62 at a shows 




Fig. 61. 



The Triangles used in Mechan- 
ical Drawing 



MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK 47 

a free-hand sketch of a single dovetail joint, and h the 
mechanical drawing complete. 

All dimensions must be given, and as far as possible 
they should be so placed as not to interfere with the 




"ol^l ^ 


^ 


L- -^ ■ 




K' 


' 




I 




^ 












-4- 





-'h 



K- 5" — 


H 




^^ 1 
4- 


1 .//. 




-'f- 



Fig. 62. Drawings of a Single Dovetail Joint 

clearness of the drawing. Neat, small arrowheads and 
plain, clear figures add to the general appearance, just 
as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words. 



48 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

A drawing which is made the exact size of tlie object 
represented is known as a full-sized drawing ; but for 
large objects such a method would necessitate large and 
unhandy sheets of drawing paper. It is customary in 
such cases to make what is called a scale drawing. 

A scale drawing may be half, quarter, or eighth size, 
and the fact is printed under the title in smaller letters, 
thus : ^ inch = 1 inch, or ^ inch = 1 inch. 

Other scales may be used. In map making, for ex- 
ample, a sixteenth of an inch may represent one, ten, 
or even a hundred miles. Whatever scale is used, how- 
ever, the dimensions must always give the exact size of 
the object represented. 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 
Paut II 



49 



CHAPTER V 

WOOD 

28. Lumbering and Milling. It is well to remember, 
when using wood for any purpose, that it was once part 




Fig. 63. The Forest, Norway Spruce, Bavaria, Germany 

of a living tree which had roots, bark, leaves, and flowers, 
and that the -tree began life as a little sapling, which 

51 



52 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



grew taller and larger for years before it could be called 
a tree, and that it was between fifty and a hundred 
years old before it was large enough to cut down for 
timber. 

The lumberman selects trees which have large, straight 
trunks. They are usually cut with the ax, although the 




Fig. 64. Felling a Tree 



first cut IS often made partially through the trunk with a 
saw. The branches are then chopped off and the body of 
the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling. They 
are rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a 
sawmill, or, in case there is no river near by, are carted 
on sleds or wagons to the railroad and tlience to the mill. 



WOOD 



53 



The cutting of the trees is usually done in winter, 
the floating of the logs, or river driving as it is called, 
beginning with the breaking up of the ice in the spring. 
Eiver driving is a very interesting and dangerous busi- 
ness. Logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole 
river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly 




Fig. 65. A Skidway of Adirondack Spruce 

that hundreds of thousands of logs are stopped in their 
course, forming an immense dam which the lumbermen 
call a log jmn. 

To break up this jam very often requires much labor 
and gre:it dating on the part of the drivers, who wear 




54 




Fig. 67. Log Boom and Lumber Piles at Tupper Lake, N.Y. 




Fig. 08. A Modern Gang Saw — Interior of Modern Sawmill 
55 



56 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

spiked shoes and are armed with long poles having sharp 
steel points. When such a jam breaks up, the crashing 
of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles. 

Having finally reached the mill, the logs float in the 
river, inclosed in a log boom, until the mill men are 
ready to saw them into planks. 




Fig. 69. A Modern Sawmill 

The boom consists of logs chained together and 
stretched across the river just as a fence is built on 
land to inclose cattle. 

The sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic 
machinery, and after the log enters it is not touched 



58 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

by human hands until it comes out as himber of various 
sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars. 

Logs are sawed into timber, planks, or boards, and 
these forms are called luynber. 

Timber refers to all of the largest sizes, such as beams 
and joists. Planks are wide strips over one inch thick, 





99 HSwuffi^^^'^ "V 


^^ftiWI& 


HiVkl ^^.^^i^fl^S^^ 


^bb 


-— -~ . 


9l^^r ' 1 \ ^v N 


— -^ 



Fig. 71. A Large Band Saw 

and boards are one inch or less in thickness, varying in 
width and length. Lumber may be planed at a planing 
mill, and is then known as dressed lumber. It may be 
dressed on one, two, or all sides. Dressed stock which 
is free from knots, shakes, and sapwood is called clear. 



WOOD 



59 




Fig. 72. End of Log, showing 
Annual Rings and Medul- 
lary Rays 



By examining the end of a log we can learn a great 

deal of the life of the tree. It is made up of a number 

of irregular rings and of lines 

radiating from the center and 

running in nearly straight lines 

toward the bark. 

The number of rings tells us 

the age of the tree, as a new 

ring is added each year. 

As the tree grows, the old 

wood near the center becomes 

compressed and dry and is 

known as the heartwood, while 

that portion between the heartwood and bark is called 

scqnvood. 

In some woods the dif- 
ference between the 
heartwood and sapwood 
is very marked. In 
ebony, for instance, the 
heartwood is coal black 
and the sapwood white. 
The sketch shows half 
a log, the annual rings 

being indicated, and also the radial lines, called medid- 

lai^y rays. 





Fig. 73. Log cut lengthwise, showing 
how " Grain " is formed 



60 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKINCx 




Fig. 74. Showing Weather 
Checks and " Shake " 



Looking at the length of the log we see that the 

lines in a board, which we call the grain, are really 

the edges of the annual rings. 

It often happens in the forest 
that the wind sways the trees 
to such an extent that the an- 
nual rings separate and slide one 
within the other ; this produces 
^ a defect in the wood called a 
shake (see s, Fig. 74). 

There are other characteris- 
tics of wood known as warjnng 
and shrinkage. 
After a tree has been cut down the cut end at first 

looks like Fig. 72. If it is allowed to lie for some 

time exposed to the weather, its 

appearance changes to Fig. 74. 

This is due to the evaporation 

of the sap, and as there is more 

sap toward the outside, the shrink- 
age is greatest there and becomes 

less toward the center where the 

heartwood is comparatively dry. 

This is an important fact to 

know, because if we had cut the log, while it was 

still green, into planks, as shown in Fig. 75, the 




Fig. 1{ 




WOOD 61 

boards would heave curled up or warped, as shown in 
Fig. 76. 

Besides warping, the evaporation of the sap causes 
the whole tree to shrink in diameter, and consequently 
our planks will tend to become narrower. This is 
called shrinkage^ and in some woods amounts to a 
quarter of an inch to the foot, which means that a 
plank sawed twelve inches wide wdll, after a few 
months, measure only eleven and 
three quarter inches. 

When we construct anything in 
wood we must always consider how Itiixit 
the object will be affected by warp- 
ing and shrinkage, remembering 
that the shrinkage is only across ^^^ ^g g^^^^j^g Effect 
the grain. of Warping 

Let us consider the problem of constructing a draw- 
ing board to see how warping and shrinkage may be 
overcome. 

If we make it of one piece, like A (Fig. 77), the board 
will soon change its shape to that shown in B^ which 
would make it useless for mechanical drawing, as a per- 
fectly flat surface is necessary. We can overcome the 
warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across 
the grain, as shown at C. The cleats would need to be 
heavy or the warping force would bend them. 




62 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



A better way would be to build the board up of sev- 
eral narrow strij)s glued together, as the warping of one 
would be counteracted by the warping of its neighbors 
in opposite directions ; but to make doubly sure, cleats 
fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added 
at the ends, as shown at D. This has an advantage 
over the first method, as the cleats in Q are often in 
the way and make the board clumsy to handle. 




Fig. 77. A Study in Construction. Methods of overcoming 
Warping and Shrinkage 



The student will find many evidences about the house 
of how the woodworker has tried to prevent warping 
and shrinkage, as, for instance, in the paneled doors, 
tables, etc. 

The wood of the various trees differs greatly in hard- 
ness, evenness of grain, durability, etc., and every boy 



WOOD 63 

should know not only what our woods are used for, but 
he should also know the trees when he sees them. 

We are indebted to the trees for many things besides 
wood. They give us delightful shade and coolness in 
summer ; many of them produce delicious fruit and 
nuts ; from them we obtain such valuable products as 
maple sirup and sugar; while tar, pitch, turpentine, 
rubber, and tannin are only a few of the many tree pro- 
ducts. The houses we live in, the chairs we sit on, — in 
fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our 
pictures, the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we 
write with, are of wood which was once part of the 
living forest. 




64 



CHAPTER VI 

BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS 

Our American trees may be divided roughly into two 
classes: (1) those which keep tlieir leaves the year 
round, known as evergreens ; (2) those whose leaves 
drop off in the fall, called hroad-leaved, or deciduous 
trees, in distinction from the evergreens, whose leaves 
are usually needle-shaped. 

Among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the 
oak, chestnut, hickory, maples, elms, etc. ; and among 
the evergreens or cone-bearing trees are the pines, 
spruces, hemlocks, firs, and cedars. 

The oak family is a very important one, the wood 
being hard and strong and the tree a sturdy, healthy, 
and well-known specimen of tree life. 

White oak is perhaps the most common member of 
the oak family. It grows to a very large size and has 
a leaf of the form shown in Fig. 79. Observe carefully 
the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch 
of the next form. 

The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its 
timber is used as a standard when comparing different 

65 



66 



ELEMENTARY WOODWOliKING 



kinds of wood. If we say that the strength of white 
pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak, 
and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard, 
just as the yard and mile are standards of length. In 
work which requires strength, such as carriage making, 

shipbuilding, and cooperage, 
white oak is used very exten- 
sively. 

The quartered oak used so 
much for furniture is obtained 
by cutting the logs in a special 
manner. The method of cut- 
ting gives a beautiful mottled 
effect with the silver rays 
spread out in irregular white 
splashes on a dark background. 
We might separate the oak 
into two distinct groups : (1) 
those trees whose acorns ripen 
in one season ; (2) those which 
require two years. The acorns of this latter group re- 
main on the tree throughout the first winter and ripen 
the second summer. 

To the first class belong the white oak just men- 
tioned, the post oak, chestnut oaks, mossy-cup oak, and 
live oak. 




Fig. 79. Typical Leaf of the 
White Oak 



THE OAKS 



67 



pm, 



In the second class are the red, scarlet, black, 
laurel, and willow oaks. 

The difference in the leaves of these trees is so great 
that we need never mistake one for the other. Notice the 
cut of the red oak and compare it with that of the white 
oak. The latter has rounded lobes, while the red-oak 
leaf has sharp points and the 
fingers of the leaf are indented 
again with smaller teeth. 

The different trees in the 
white-oak family all have 
leaves with rounded lobes, and 
most of those in the red-oak 
group have pointed ones, yet 
there is a difference between 
members of the same family, 
just as among human beings. 

We can tell at a glance 
whether a man is a negro, a 
Chinaman, or a white man. If Fig. so. Leaf of the Post Oak 
a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American ; 
and again, if an American, he may belong to the Jones 
family. But all the members of the Jones family do not 
look alike and we know one from another. 

This is true of trees. No two are alike, and we can 
tell from observation whether a tree is an evergreen or 




68 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



a broad-leaved tree, whether it belongs to the white- 
oak group ; and after studying trees a little we can tell 
whether a member of this group is a white oak, a post 
oak, or a mossy-cup oak. 

Compare the post-oak leaf (Fig. 80) with that of the 
white oak. There is not a great diiference in form, but 

the post-oak leaf is thick, leath- 
ery, and dark green, while the 
white oak has a beautiful thin, 
light green leaf, which turns red 
in the fall. 

The post oak is a rougher and 
coarser tree than the other, and 
is sometimes called iron oak on 
account of its very hard, tough 
wood. 

29. The Mossy-Cup Oak. One 
of the most beautiful oaks we 
have in America grows in the 
South and West, and is only 
rarely found in om* parks in the East. It is called the 
moHsy-cup oak because the large acorn which it bears is 
surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides the 
nut. This acorn is a sight never to be forgotten. The 
leaf is larger than that of the wdiite oak, and although 
the two leaves look somewhat alike, the divisions of the 




Fig. 81. 



Leaf of Mossy-Cup 
Oak 



THE OAKS 



69 



mos.^-y-cup leaf are not as regular as those of the Avhite 
oak, and it is not so thin and delicate. 

Its wood is very strong and is valuahle for many 
purposes, such as boats, carriages, farming implements, 
railroad ties, and cooperage. 

30. Black Oak and Black-jack Oak. These two trees 
are usually found growing in wild places, and the 




Fig. 82. Leaves of Black Oak and Black-Jack Oak (Black-Jack on right) 

black-jack oak is often called barren oak from the fact 
that it frequents bleak and barren plains, sucli as the 
sandy stretches of New Jersey and Long Island. 

The sketch shows the difference in the leaves, that 
of the black-jack having only tliree main lobes, or 



70 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 




Fig. 83. 
Red 



Leaf of 
Oak 



divisions, while the black oak 
has five. However, the leaves 
of these two trees vary consider- 
ably, and one must always look 
for the typical leaf, which is the 
one shown in the sketch. The 
black-jack is a small, shrubby 
tree, with branches often twisted 
and contorted, and its wood is 
not very valuable except as fuel 
or for making charcoal. 



mm 

mi III 
!((■ 

mm 



'!^\\ S«^#l 



%i ...mvSi 



y J ^ M 



^HyL.M\ 



Fig. 84. Wood of the Red Oak, showing three sections. The one on the left 
shows annual rings obtained by a horizontal cut through the tree. Cen- 
tral view shows vertical cut at center of tree. View on right shows verti- 
cal cut between center and bark as illustrated in Fig. 73. 



THE OAKS 



71 



The acorns require two seasons for ripening, as do 
those of the red, scarlet, and pin oaks. 

31. The Red Oak. The red oak is one of our largest 
and most noble trees, growing taller even than the white 
oak, and may always be dig 
tinguished by its very large 
shiny, dark green leaves. 

Its bark is also mucl 
smoother and darker thai 
the white oak. Its acorn i 
very bitter and 
can easily be rec- 
ognized l)y its 
shallow cup and 
l.)y its large size. 
It is the largest of the 
two-year acorns. The 
wood of the red oak is 
darker than that of the 
white, and is used in 
the manufacture of fur- 
niture. Tio. 85. Scarlet Oak 

32. The Scarlet Oak. This tree is often confused with 
the red, but a glance at the leaves will show a great 
difference. That of the scarlet has deeper indentations 
and is much more slender and skeleton-like in shape. It 




72 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it 
takes on when the leaves change color in the fall. 

33. The Pin Oak. The pin-oak leaf is much more 
readily confounded with the scarlet oak than that "of any 
other tree. In fact, no two trees have leaves so nearly 
alike as these two ; yet a glance at two typical leaves 

placed side by side will 
show considerable differ- 
ence. 

The pin-oak leaf is 
smaller than the other, 
and in proportion to its 
size the indentations are 
not so deep. 
The pin-oak tree has a 
great many small branchlets, 
or stems, which give the tree 
the appearance of a bundle 
of pins, especially when the 
leaves are oft' in winter. It 
is a beautiful tree and is now 
being planted very extensively as a shade tree. It is 
hardy, and stands city air very well indeed. Its bark 
is rich in tannic acid, which is used in tanning leather. 
The oak family is such a large and valuable one that 
we cannot aftord to pass it over lightly. In the South 




Fig. 8G. Pin Oak 



THE OAKS 



73 



grows the willow oak, famous for its shade and its 
leaves, which resemble those of the willow. A little 
farther north we find, along the Ohio valley, the shingle 
oah, so called from the fact that its wood is mostly 
made into shingles. It is also known as the laurel 
oak, because its leaves are shaped like those of the 
laurel, although not 
so glossy. 

This is such an 
odd shape for an oak 
leaf that one would 
be likely to pass it 
by and not recog- 
nize it but for the 
fact that it bears 
acorns. This is al- 
ways the test, — 
'' By their fruits ye 
shall know them." 

If we meet a new 
tree which seems 

not to be an oak because its leaves are new to us, and 
it bears acorns, we may be sure it is an oak. 

A very interesting group of trees which come under 
this head are the chestnut oaks. At first glance one 
would take one of these trees to be a chestnut, but it 




Fig. 87. Pin Oak in Winter 



74 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



bears acorns and must therefore be an oak. The sketch 
shows the two leaves side by side. 

Let us examine them closely. Although they slightly 
resemble each other, by looking carefully we see that the 
teeth on the chestnut leaf are pointed, while those on 
the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded. There is also 





Chestnut 



Chestnut Oak 



Fig. 88 



a difference in proportion, as the chestnut leaf is long 
and narrow, while that of the chestnut oak is broader. 

There are several varieties of chestnut oak, but their 
leaves are quite similar and they all belong to the white- 
oak group and ripen their acorns in one season. They 
grow to a large size, one famous from Revolutionary 



THE OAKS 



75 



times at Fishkill-on-tlie-Hudson measuring seven feet in 
diameter. The acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought 
after by the squirrels. 

The wood is durable in exposed places and is used for 
cooperage, railroad ties, and fencing. 

34. The Live Oak. No list of American oaks would 
be complete without the live oak. This is a southern 
tree and is remarkable in many ways. Its 
leaf has no indentations, remains green all 
winter, and is thick and leathery. 

The wood is extremely heavy, a cubic 
foot weighing nearly sixty pounds. It is 
as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes 
a high polish and has a fine grain, it soon 
dulls the edge of a tool. 

Before the age of steel, when all ships fig. 89. Leaf of 
were wooden, it was much used in ship- ^'^^ ^^^ 
building, and the government bought large tracts of land 
where live oak grew abundantly, so that the United 
States navy should never lack the necessary timber. 

It grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Vir- 
ginia, and along the Gulf to Texas. 




CHAPTER VII 

BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE MAPLES 

It is the maple family to wliich we are indebted for 
much of the glorious coloring of our autumn landscapes. 

It is true that all trees play their part in the general 
color scheme, but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of 
the fall foliage we must look to the maples. 

When we think of the word maple we are apt to 
have visions of other things besides trees. Maple and 
sugar or sirup seem to go together, and in fact some of 
us do not know that there are other maples besides the 
sugar maple. 

This fine American tree is one of which we should be 
proud. Not only is it a handsome large tree, valuable 
for its shade and the beautiful colors it wears in the fall, 
but its wood is hard and valuable, — it is often called 
rock maple y — and besides all these good qualities it fur- 
nishes us with our maple sirup and sugar. 

The process of making maple sugar is quite interest- 
ing and may be divided into two stages, — gathering the 
sap, and boiling down. 

76 



THE MAPLES 77 

Very early in the spring, often as early as March, 
the sap begins to flow up through the tree. The farmer 
knows by experience when to tap the tree, which he 
does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger. 
Into this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through 
which the lifeblood of the tree — the sap — flows in a 
steady drip, drip, drip, into a pail or bucket placed beneath 
to catch it. 

The sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks 
of a clock, one a second. This continues for two or 
three weeks, until each tree has yielded something like 
twenty-five gallons. As it takes five gallons of sap to 
produce a pound of sugar, each tree yields about five 
pounds of maple sugar. In New England and New York 
there are maple groves containing thousands of trees, 
and one farm alone produces five thousand pounds of 
sugar in a season. 

Strange as it may seem, this excessive bleeding of the 
trees does not kill them unless improperly done. The 
farmer must not tap them at the wrong time nor in too 
many places. The tree will stand a great deal if prop- 
erly treated, but harsh treatment will kill it. 

The boiling process is very simple. The sap is poured 
into large boilers or evaporators and boiled until it be- 
comes a sirup. The old-fashioned test to find out when 
the boiling had been carried on long enough was to drop 



78 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish. 
If it hardened, the boiling was finished. 

Fig. 90 shows the leaf of the sugar maple, also that 
leaf which is most often confounded with it, viz., the 
Norway maple. Observe the two closely. The sugar 
maple has blunt, rounded points and is thick, while the 




Sugar Maple 



Norway Maple 



Fig. 90 



Norway has sharp points, which are more numerous, 
and the leaf is much thinner and more delicate. 

The sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so 
dense a shade as the Norway, which is a low-growing 
tree with close, dark foliage. 

35. The Silver Maple. The one which naturally comes 
next in the list is the silver, soft, or white iJiaple, as it is 



THE MAPLES 



79 



variously termed. From tlie ground up to the topmost 
leaf the whole character of this tree suggests the word 
thoroughbred. Clean-cut, refined, strong, and healthy 
in every detail, the silver maple is a thing of beauty 

and might truly be called 
the acme of perfection in 
tree life. Its name is 





The Silver Maple 



Fig. 91 



The Red Maple 



derived from the fact that the under side of the leaf is 
silvery white. The upper side being dark green gives 
a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the foliage, which 
as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the 
American elm. 



80 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



This description does not always fit, however, as it 
is planted extensively in cities where horses gnaw the 
fine bark ; smoke, soot, and coal gas discolor the leaves ; 
and the caterpillars complete the work of destroying its 

beauty. Yet it still lives, 
even if it does not thrive 
under such harsh treat- 
ment. Its wood is white, 
soft, and not very valu- 
able. 

36. The Red Maple. A 
relative of the silver ma- 
ple and one which might 
be mistaken for it is the 
red, swamp, or wild ma- 
ple. It is this tree which 
displays the brightest reds 
in autumn. Referring to 
the sketch it will be seen 
that the leaf is smaller 
and three-fingered in- 

FiG. 92. The Sycamore Maple -, ^ n • i 

stead 01 live, as m the 
silver variety. The stem of this leaf is also red during 
the entire season, as if it could not wait for autumn. 

37. The Sycamore Maple. In the rows on rows of 
maples so common in our towns and cities one will 




THE maplp:s 



81 



often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser than any 
of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an 
importation from Europe, known as the sycamoi^e niajole 
because of its resemblance to the sycamore leaf. It is 
easily identified by its large size, coarseness, the very 
long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire 
edge is finely toothed, — in 
which point it differs from 
all the foregoing varieties. 
Its value as a shade tree is 
nearly equal to the Norway, 
and in Europe it is often 
planted in preference to all 
other maples. 

38. The Striped Maple. 
Growing in the shade of 
other trees and forming part 
of the undergrowth of our 
North woods is a small tree 
known as the striped maple, 
from the stripes which run 
up and down its bark. The New England name for this 
little mountain tree is m.oosewood, from the fact that 
the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which 
form his chief food in winter. The leaves are quite 
large, but very thin, soft, and delicate. 




Fig. 



The Striped Maple, or 
Moosewood 



82 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



39. Maple Keys. The fruit, or seeds, of all the maples 
are known as winged. The flat, thin part gives the 
seed a swirling motion as it drops from the tree. This 
is the way nature has of spreading the seed over a 
large area so that more trees may be started in life. 
Many tree seeds are winged, but the maple seed or 
key is so large and so common that every one must 
at some time have noticed it. 

40. The Ash-Leaved Maple. The 
ash-leaved maple is a leaf very com- 
mon in our parks. It has no resem- 
blance to other maple leaves, yet it 
bears the unmistakable maple key, 
— ''By their fruits ye shall know 
them." It is therefore a maple. 

The box elder, or ash-leaved maple, 
is interesting because it is our only 
maple having a compound leaf ; that 
is, a leaf stem with several distinct leaflets. Compound 
leaves are very common (notice the hickory leaf and the 
horse-chestnut), but not on maples, and our ash-leaved 
maple is a curiosity. It delights in swampy places, but 
grows almost anywhere. It is a small tree, and its wood 
is not especially valuable except for making paper pulp. 
North America has only nine varieties of maple, while 
China and Japan have more than thirty. Indeed, it is 




Fig. 94. Maple "Keys," 
a Common Form of 
Winged Seeds 



THE MAPLES 



83 



to Japan, whose forests are largely made up of maples, 
that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and 
exquisite trees to be found. The Japan maples planted 
so extensively on our lawns and in our parks have such 
a variety of form and color 
that no written description 
can do them justice. Fig. 96 
will give some idea of their 




Fig. 05. Ash-Leaved Maple, or Box Elder 

shape and delicacy. The colors, which of course cannot 
be shown, range from dark purple to the most delicate 
combinations of white and green. The finest of these 
dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to an ostrich 
plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves. 





84 



CHAPTER VIII 



BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES 



The beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig 
with several leaves is a compound leaf or a number of 
simple leaves. This is a very easy thing to decide. At 
the end of the leaf stem, where the leaf joins 
the twig or branch, is always a little bud. 
When the leaf drops off in the fall 
the bud remains, and in the spring 
begins to swell and finally 
develops into a leaf. This 
bud then is the promise of 
next year's leaf, and it is ^\ 
always found at the base of ' 
the leaf stem, as shown at 

A. There is no such bud at 
the base of the leaflet on the 
compound leaf, as shown at 

B. If then we find no bud at B, we must look farther 
down until we discover it at C. This furnishes the test 
and we know that our specimen is a compound leaf. 

85 




Fig. 97. Method of distinguishing 
Compound and SimplQ Leaves 



86 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

This class of leaf is very common, as our horse-chest- 
nuts, buckeyes, hickories, and walnuts all have com- 
pound leaves. 

The horse-chestnut is not a native American tree, but 
was imported from Europe, where it is a great favorite. 
The leaflets number five or seven, always an odd num- 




FiG. 98. The Ilorse-Chestnut 

ber, and they radiate from one central point, the odd 
one in the center usually being the largest. 

It is very interesting to watch these leaves as they 
come out of the sticky buds in the spring. They unfold 
and grow very rapidly and soon the tree brings forth 
large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers. 



TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES 



87 



The large, neat brown nuts which come later in the 
season do not seem to be very useful, yet they are so 
solid and shiny that every boy delights to gather them. 

An American tree closely resembling the horse-chest- 
nut is the buckeye. The leaflets on the buckeye leaf 
number five, sometimes seven, and radiate like the horse- 
chestnut from a common center. 




Buckeye Hickory 

Fio. 09. Familiar Forms of Compound Leaves 

This tree is well known through the Ohio valley, 
where it is very common, Ohio being called the Buck- 
eye State. The nuts are not edible, but the wood is 
very tough and strong and is used extensively in mak- 
ing farm implements. 



88 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

Compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory 
shown in Fig. 99. Both leaves are compound, and each 
has five leaflets, but they are quite different, because the 
hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of the leaf- 
stalk instead of radiating from one point. 

There are several varieties of hickory, including the 
shagbark, or shellbark, the pignut, and pecan. 

The name shaghark hickory is taken from the peculiar 
appearance of the bark, which hangs in loose pieces 
nearly a foot long and gives the tree a very shaggy 
effect. Shellbark is another common name for this tree. 

The nut which this tree bears is hard and thick, but 
the kernel is very sweet, and is considered by some 
superior to all other hickory nuts. 

The pignut hickory is so called because the nuts in 
some parts of the country are used to feed the pigs. It 
is also called hroom hickory. The nuts are small and 
become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood, 
however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard 
and tough. There is a difference between strength and 
toughness. Oak is strong, but not tough. Hickory is 
both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will 
stand bending without breaking. A wood which will 
bend easily but is not strong cannot be called tough. 
It must be both strong and elastic, and hickory has 
both of these qualities. 



TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES 



89 



41. The Pecan. We usually tliink of the pecan nut 
as different from the hickory, yet they belong to the 
same family. The pecan hickory is a southern tree 
which delights in the warm climate south of the Ohio 





Black Walnut 



Butternut 



Fig. 100 



River, and in Texas is found as a grand forest giant 
one hundred and fifty feet high, producing an enor- 
mous crop of the sAveetest and most delicately flavored 
nuts. The leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as 
many as fifteen. 



90 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

42. The Black Walnut and Butternut. Perhaps no 
two trees are so difficult for the city boy or girl to 
distinguish as the butternut and black walnut. Both 
have compound leaves, the number of leaflets varying 
from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from 
fifteen to twenty-three for the black walnut. A leaf 
having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong to either tree 
if there were no other way to distinguish them. The 
teeth on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper 
than on the butternut, and the fuzzy stem is lacking. 
The green nuts, too, are different, the black walnuts 
being just about the size and shape of green lemons, 
the butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistak- 
able feature is the odor. Having once smelled the 
crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut, a 
person will thereafter need no other test. 

The use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture 
was at one time very common. The great supply of 
this valuable wood has been exhausted and other woods 
have become fashionable. It is still used for gunstocks, 
for which purpose nothing seems better suited. 

Butternut is a light-colored wood, but takes a good 
polish and is occasionally used in cabinet work. 

43. The Locusts. The locust family is a large one ; its 
members all bear compound leaves, and their fruit is in 
the form of beans instead of nuts. 



TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES 



91 



The common yellow or black locust is famous for its 
hard, durable wood, its delicate light green leaves, and 
its white flowers. 

The tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are 
off, but its wood is so valuable that its beauty is not 

considered. The wood is yel- 
low and becomes very hard 
after it has dried. 

The honey locust is another 
common member of this family. 





Fig. 101 



The Honey Locust 



44. The Honey Locust. Its leaves are much finer and 
somewhat resemble ferns. It may always be known by 
the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which grow all over 
the tree. These thorns are unusually large, sometimes 



92 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



being found in great bunches and as long as six inches. 
Its fruit is a long, thin, brownish pod, which is sweet and 
contains little light brown beans. The wood is strong 
and durable. 

45. The Ash. Every boy who has owned a rowboat 
knows that oars are made of wood from the ash. This 
is because the oar must be elastic as well as strong, 
and the timber of the ash tree sup- 
plies these two qualities. The ash 
is one of our tallest and noblest 
forest trees. It is rather slim in 
build, with beautiful clean shiny 
green foliage. The members of 
this group seem to be 
fond of colors, and we 
have the white ash, red 
ash, green ash, blue ash, 
and black ash. 

There are slight dif- 
FiG. 102. Red Ash fereuccs in the leaves and 

seeds, but, as in other trees, when we have once seen an 
ash seed we can always thereafter distinguish an ash tree. 
Fig. 102 shows the seed of the red ash. It is a winged 
seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing. 

The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to 
seven leaflets and the black ash has from seven to 




TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES 93 

eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and elastic, has a 
handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides 
making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those 
farm implements which require strength. The Indian 
could find no better wood for his bow, and even Cupid 
is said to have first made his arrows of ash. 



CHAPTER IX 

BROAD -LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 

46. The Elm. The elm is the well-known shade tree 
of New England. Its tall, graceful form is familiar to 




Fig. 103. The American Elm 



every visitor and native of that section of country, where 
it is found along every roadway and in every city. 

Who can think of New England without its noble 
elms ? It would indeed be a different country. The 



94 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



95 



elm may be said to represent New England character, 
— dignified, sturdy, graceful, and refined. Being tall, 
with foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives 
the desired shade, yet does not obstruct the view ; while 
its stately dignity gives an air of comfort and repose to 
the grounds, which it seems to protect from the elements. 

Its w^ood is valuable for certain kinds 
of work, being tough and strong, but it 
is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is 
difficult to polish. It is used consider- 
ably for wheel hubs and in cooperage. 

Observe the edge of the elm leaf 
carefully. The teeth not only curve 
gracefully toward the extreme tip of 
the leaf, but they are themselves also 
toothed, — a form known as double- 
toothed. The leaf is coarse and rough 
to the touch, in marked contrast to the 
birch family, whose leaves it slightly 
resembles. There are several elms famous in the his- 
tory of our country. At Cambridge is the old elm under 
which George Washington drew his sword and took com- 
mand of the American Army on July 3, 1775 ; there are 
several other " Washington Elms " in different parts of 
the country, while New Haven is known as the City of 
Elms. William Penn made his famous treaty with the 




Fig. 104. Leaf of 
American Elm 



96 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



Indians under the branches of a magnificent elm, which 
remained standing until it was over two hundred years 
old, when it was finally blown down. The spot has been 
marked by a marble column. 

The tree is called the American, or ivJiite, elm, and we 
have several other varieties growing wild, including the 
well-known slijjpery elm, so called 
because the inner bark is slippery 
and edible. 

47. The Birches. If the black 
birch with its sweet, aromatic bark 
is not known to a boy, the white, or 
canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems 
to be the fate of this beautiful tree 
to be disfigured by every wander- 
ing youth who has strength enough 
Fig. 105. Leaf of Black to tear off a strip of its paper-like 

Birch - , 

bark. 

The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distin- 
guished from the elm by its smoothness and thinness. 
Its base is slightly heartshaped, the edge is double- 
toothed, the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the 
taste, and the leaves grow in pairs. 

48. White Birch. The famous white, paper, or canoe 
birch has a leaf somewhat broader than the black variety, 
but without the heartshaped base. Its bark is its pecuhar 





97 



98 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



feature and cannot be mistaken. It comes off in layers 
and possesses a resinous quality which makes it water- 
proof, a fact fully appreciated by the Indians, who con- 
structed their canoes of it. The wood is hard and tough. 

49. Gray Birch. A 
smaller tree, known as 
the gray hirch, also has 
white bark, but it is not 
as perfect as that of the 
canoe birch, does not peel 
in layers, and has trian- 
gular black spots on the 
trunk beneath every 
limb. 

It loves barren, rocky 
places, aband(med farms, 
etc., and is sometimes 
called old field hirch. It 
has a fine, delicate foli- 
age, which is not dupli- 
cated in the forest. Each 
leaf swings from a long, slender stem, and every passing 
breeze gives it a trembling effect, like the aspen. The 
leaf form is very odd, — a broad, flat base, and then a 
long, graceful curve out to a fine point, the whole edge 
being finely double-toothed. 




Fig. 107. Leaf of Gray Birch 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



99 



50. The Beech. The difference in the leaf forms of 
the birch and beech is very marked. Both have toothed 
edges, but in the beech the spaces between the teeth are 
so remarkably shallow that one has to search for them. 



^ 




£/ 




\ ' 






' :^^^ 


^^i- ill 


;^^ffl 


^H^^^^^^i^ 


m^^^^^Em 






' " - ' " 





Fig. 108. A Remarkable Growth of Beeches in Greater New York 

There has been a common belief for generations that 
the beech is proof against lightning, and recent experi- 
ments prove that beech wood offers considerably greater 
resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar, or 
willow ; so our ancestors were partly right. The wood 
is hard, strong, and tough, and will take a high polish. 

^ •f C 



100 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



5X. Hornbeam. Closely related to the beeches are two 
little trees which have delicate birchlike foliage and wood 
of great hardness, — the hornbeam, or blue beech, and 




Fig. 110. Iron wood, or Hop Hornbeam 



Fig. 109. Leaf of Amer- 
ican Beech 

the hop hornbeam, 
or iron wood. 

The leaves of 
these two varieties 
are quite similar, that of the ironwood being somewhat 
the larger. 

The name hop hornheam is derived from the fruit, 
which resembles the hop, and the name ironwood from 
the great strength and hardness of the wood. 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



101 



52. Buttonball. No list of trees would be complete 
which did not include those three forest giants, button- 
ball, tuhp, and sweet gum. The names huttonivood, 
huttonhaU, sycainore, and plane tree, as the same tree is 
called in different parts of the country, all apply to that 
fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its 
leaves, leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which 
produces an enormous crop 
of buttonballs so well known 
to country boys and girls. 
The leaves are in proportion 
to the size of the tree, often 
measuring a foot in length, 
and being frequently covered 
on the under side with a 
white down called fungus. 

The wood of the sycamore, 
as it is incorrectly called, is 
valuable for cabinetwork, having a beautiful grain and 
taking a high polish. It is, however, difficult to work, 
and has a tendency to warp. 

53. Sweet Gum. The sweet-gum tree also produces a 
crop of balls, or seed pods, but although the same size 
as the buttonballs, they need never be confused, as the 
gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points, while 
the buttonballs are comparatively smooth. 




Fig. 111. Leaf of Button wood 



102 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



The leaves of the sweet gam, or liquid amher — so 
called from the amber-colored gam the tree gives out — 
remind one of the starfish, being five-fingered and decid- 
edly different from any leaf in the forest. The tree 
grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and its 
wood is a handsome brown color with fine and intricate 

markings. It warps badly, 
but is valued for wood turn- 
ino; on account of its soft- 
ness and even grain. 

54. Tulip. The lumber 
furnished by the tulip tree, 
commonly called ivhite- 
woody is less liable to warp 
than gum wood, and is some- 
what harder. Just why it 
should be called white wood 
is not clear, as it is much 
darker than white pine and 
of a greenish-yellow color. 
The leaf of the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only 
four points, without any small teeth, and with an outline 
so odd that one often wonders if nature did not use a 
pair of scissors in cutting it out. 

Each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem. 
The glory of the tree — which gives it its name — is 




Fig. 112. Sweet Gum, or Liquid 
Amber 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



103 



the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it bears in the spring. 
They are large and brilliant, yellowish-green in color, 
with dashes of red, and develop a narrow, light-brown 
cone, which remains on the tree all winter. The 
tree thrives best south of the Ohio valley, where it 
is frequently found from five to seven feet in diame- 
ter. The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes 
from its trunk, and in some 
sections it is still called canoe 
ivood. 

55. Basswood, or Linden. A 
very valuable group of trees 
for both shade and timber 
are the basswoods, or lindens. 
There are several varieties, 
the European linden thriving 
here as readily as our native 
varieties. These trees may 
always be distinguished by ^i«- ^^^- ^aiip, or wi.iiewoxi 
the leaves, which are heartshaped and lopsided, i.e. one 
side from the middle line being always larger than the 
other, as if two leaves of different sizes had been joined 
along the center. 

This is a very common feature among certain classes 
of trees, such as the elms. Another remarkable feature 
is the seed, ox bract, shown in the sketch (Fig. 115). 




104 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



The tree is sugar-loaf in shape, gives a dense shade, 
and has sweet flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes 
called the hee tree, because the bees swarm all over it 
in the summer time. Its timber is valuable, being free 




Fig. 114, American Linden, or Basswood, showing the 8ugar-Loaf Form 

of the Tree 

from knots and of such an even grain that it is much 
sought after for some kinds of carving. 

The familiar cigar-store Indian is usually carved from 
basswood. 

Among the broad-leaved trees there are still several 
familiar families, all loved by some of us for some reason. 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



105 



The willow is always a striking tree, not only because 
of its weeping or drooping appearance, but also because 
we usually associate it with water. 

What is more common in the country than a stream 
hidden by the willows which crowd its bank and dip 

down into the clear 
water ! 

Then, too, we watch 
it for the first sign of 
spring, and friends in dif- 
ferent states often vie 




Fig. 115. Leaf and Bract of Linden (^J/l, ^^^^^ ^^^^^ othcr to 

discover the first 
pussy ivilloiv, the name given to the soft, downy buds 
which appear often before the snow has melted. 

The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs 
in spring the bark can be separated from the wood and a 
whistle or simple flute manufactured. 



106 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being 
used chiefly by pulp makers, but it grows where no 
other trees can exist, being found nearly all over the 
world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any 
other broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over 




Fig. 116. A Weeping Willow 

one hundred and fifty varieties, which vary from small 
shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high. Its soft and 
gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence. 

56. The Poplars. In the poplars we have a group 
of trees similar to the willows in some ways but very 
different in others. The wood is weak and of little 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



107 



use except for fuel aud paper pulp, but there the like- 
ness ends. 

To this family belongs the quaking aspen, whose 
leaves are continually trembling, — in fact, the whole 
family is a restless one, the constant motion being due 
to the shape of the long stems, which are flattened. 

The people of Scotland have a 
superstition that it was of aspeu 





Aspen 



Fig. 117 



Aspen Poplar, 
or Large-Tootlied Aspen 



wood that our Saviour's cross was made, and that the 
tree shivers in constant remembrance of that fact. 

Beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen, 
the Lombardy poplar, and the cottonwood. 



108 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to 
reach toward the clouds, and its tall, narrow form is 
familiar in many sections of our country, although the 
tree was originally imported from Europe. 

Cottonwood and balm of Gilead are two well-known 
members of this family. Cottonwood is best known in 

the West, where it often 
constitutes the chief and 
only growth along the wa- 
ter courses, and balm of 
Gilead is known as one 
of our common city shade 
trees. This latter tree, of- 
ten called the balsam, is 
really an important tree 
of the great northwestern 
country, being found plen- 
tifully in the Klondike, 
and often forming in that 
far northern country great 
forests thousands of square 
miles in extent. It is used as a shade tree because it 
stands the smoke and gas of the city where many other 
trees pine away and die. 

57. Sassafras. We find many freaks in the tree 
world, and nature seems to have tried to see how odd 




Fig. 118. Cotton 
wood, or Caro 
lina Poplar 



TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES 



109 



she really could be ; for instance, on the sassafras tree 
we find three distinct kinds of leaves, having one, two, 
and three divisions. 

This tree, which in the northern states is usually quite 
small, grows under favorable conditions to a height of 
fifty feet. It is noted for the pleasant taste of its leaves, 





Fkj. 119. Sassafras 

twigs, and roots, which are used considerably in flavor- 
ing medicines. 

58. Mulberry. Another tree noted for the peculiar 
shape of its leaves is the mulberry. There are three 
common kinds, named, from the color of their berries, 
red, black ^ and ivhite. 



110 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



It is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of 
the silkworm. The leaves of this tree are quite regular, 




Fig. 120. Red Mulberry, showing Variation in Leaf Form 

but those of the red and black vary apparently as they 
please. No two leaves seem to be alike either in size 
or shape, and they are very soft and downy. 



CHAPTER X 

THE EVERGREENS 

The evergreen trees, so called because their needle- 
like leaves remain on the tree all winter, are fully as 




Fig. 121. White Pines at Westbury, Long Island 

interesting as the broad-leaved trees. Without them 

our landscapes in winter would be much more barren 

and bleak, and their shade is very pleasant in summer. 

Ill 




Fig. 122. A View showing how Evergreens help to enrich 
the Landscape. Arbor Vitse Hedges 

112 ^ 



THE EVERGREENS 



113 



A pine forest with its f resli balsam air and needle-covered 
floor is a sight to be long remembered. 

The wood of the evergreens is usually classed among 
the soft timbers, although the yellow pine is far from soft. 

59. White Pine. The king among evergreens is usu- 
ally admitted to be the white pine. Its soft, bluish-green 
foliage, the widespreading branches, and 
the value of its fine, even-grained wood 
give it the first rank. 

Pines have needle-shaped leaves 
which grow in groups of two, 
three, or five. White pine nee- 
dles grow in groups of five and 
are from three to four inches 
long. The cones which contain 
the seeds are about five inches 
long. The tree grows tall and 
straight, and formerly grew in 
great forests covering thousands 
of square miles ; the wood is so 
free from pitch and is so easily worked with tools that 
these great forests have been almost annihilated by the 
lumberman's ax, and white-pine timber has become quite 
expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large 
enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in 
the future white pine will be only a memory. 




Fig. 123. Needles and Cone 
of White Pine 



114 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

60. Georgia Pine. The southern yellow pine, or Georgia 
pine, is a very different tree from its northern cousin, the 
white pine, furnishing us with a resinous yellow wood, 
much harder than white pine^ and a beautiful and valu- 
able material for the interiors of buildings. It is also 
very durable and is frequently used for exposed places, 
such as the decks of ships. 

The needles are very long, measuring a foot and some- 
times fifteen inches in length. 

The seed cones are from six to 
ten inches long, and the scales have 
little prickles on their ends. The 
tree grows throughout the south- 
ern states from Virginia to Texas, 
and the cutting of its timber is a 
valuable industry of the South. 
61. Yellow Pine. The common 
iG. . em oc yellow piuc must not be confounded 
with the long-leaved Georgia pine. The former has 
needles growing three in a bunch, and the latter short 
needles three or four inches long, growing two and some- 
times three in a group. The cone of the common yellow 
pine is also very much smaller, being only two inches 
long. 

Its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring, 
ceiling, and interior finishing. 




THE evergrep:ns 



115 



There are several less important kinds of pine, such 
as the northern and Jersey scrub pines, and the red, 
or Norway pine. 

Spruce, hemlock, and fir are well-known members of 
the evergreen family. 

62. Hemlock is a graceful, dainty-looking tree, with 
drooping branches and Httle needles not over half an 




Fig. 125. The Influence of Hemlock on the Winter Landscape. Snow Scene 

inch long. It is a northern tree except along the 
Allegheny Mountains, where it extends as far south as 
Alabama. The seed cones are the tiniest brown things 
to be found among the connnon trees. They are no 
longer than -the hemlock needles. 



116 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 

The wood is not as valuable as pine, splitting very 
easily and being afflicted with shakes, a defect caused 
by the annual layers or rings breaking away from each 
other when the trees are swayed by the winter storms. 
The bark is valuable, however, as it is rich in tannin. 

63. Spruce. The tall, dark, cone-shaped evergreen 
trees which ornament so many of our old farm door- 
yards are usually some species of spruce. The spruce 
is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir, which is so 
commonly used for Christmas trees, but they are so 
different that they need never be confused. 

There are several varieties of spruce, including the 
red, black, white, and Norway, but they all bear a family 
resemblance. 

Looking at the end of a spruce twig, it will be found 
that the needles completely surround it. This is not 
true of the fir. Then the spruce needles are sharp at 
the tip, while the fir needles are blunt. 

This family is distinctly a northern group, being 
found as far north as Hudson Bay and forming dense 
forests, particularly on mountain sides. One may often 
see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the 
broad-leaved trees and the evergreens, the dark spruces 
extending clear up to the summit. 

The red spruce is found as far south as Tennessee, 
but in that latitude it grows only at high elevations. 



THE EVERGREENS 



117 



It has cones about one and a half inches long, and its 
wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is used 
for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for 
the frames of buildings. 

The black spruce is the northern brother of the red, 
and is really a Canadian tree which occasionally reaches 
down into the United States. It reaches the Mackenzie 
River on the north and covers large areas in Manitoba. 

It takes its name from the dark, 
somber color of its foliage, which seems 
almost black against the snowy hill- 
sides. 

The cones are the same size as on the 
red spruce, but they persist in remaining 
on the tree for several years. The wood 
is soft and weak and is used for sound- 
ing-boards, pulp, and light framing for 
houses. 

The white spruce is similar to the other two, but 
lighter in color, cones a trifle longer and softer, and 
needles more slender. It is a northern tree ; its wood 
is very white and clear-grained, and is used for finish- 
ing the interior of houses. 

Norway spruce, as its name implies, is an importa- 
tion from Europe, where its majestic height graces the 
mountains fjrom the Alps to Norway and Sweden. It 




Fig. 126. Black 
Spruce 



118 



ELEMENTARY AVOODWORKING 



grows very tall, sometimes a hundred and fifty feet, and 
flourishes as well in America as in Europe. The cones 
are four or five inches long. Its wood is known in 
Europe as deal. 

64. Cypress. In the swamps of our southern states, 
from Maryland south along the Gulf of Mexico, are 

found great dark forests of 
the bald cypress. 

They grow directly out 
of the water and are famous 
for a peculiar formation of 
the roots called cyjjress 
kneeSy — lumpy growths 
which come up out of the 
water as if they were in 
search of air. The cypress 
is a tall, spirelike tree, 
which has the most deli- 
Cypress ^atc, feathery needles im- 

aginable. They drop off in the fall, so that the tree 
is sometimes called deciduous cypress. The cones are 
roundish and about an inch long. The timber furnished 
by this tree is very handsome in grain and valuable for 
many parts of buildings, especially inside finishing. 

65. The Balsam Fir, or our famous Christmas tree, is 
noted for its great healing qualities. In fact, sanitaria 




Fig. 12' 



THE EVERGREENS 119 

for invalids, especially consumptives, are frequently 
built in the midst of great fir forests, that the sufferers 
may inhale the pure mountain air, laden as it is with 
the odors of the balsam fir. The needles are often used 
to fill pillows, which are said to soothe tired and worn- 
out people to sleep. 

We are all familiar with the sweet, ivoodsy smell of 
the Christmas tree. No other tree can take its place. 
It brings visions of the country, of the woods and fields 
and flowers, and it will al- 
ways be dear to us. 

The balsam fir can always 
be distinguished from the 
spruce by the fact that the 
needles only come out at 
the sides of the twig instead 
of from all directions, as in 
the spruce, and its end is 
blunt, whereas that of the 
spruce is sharply pointed. ^^^- ^'^- balsam Fir 

The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters 
which contain the balsam, Canada balsam it is usually 
called, well known for its healing qualities. 

The cones are from two to four inches long, stand 
upright on the branches, and the wood is not very 
valuable. 




120 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



66. The Cedars. No list of evergreen trees would be 
complete without the cedars. In this group is the well- 
known hedge tree, arbor vitoe, sometimes erroneously 
called icliite cedar. It is famous for its flattened, bright 
green, scaly leaves, witli their strong, pungent odor. 

This tree is usually so trimmed that we have very 
little knowledge as to its real shape and height if 

allowed to grow naturally; but 
it is said to reach a height of 
fifty feet under favorable con- 
ditions. 

67. White Cedar. The real 
white cedar has a more deli- 
cate leaf and is fond of cool 
swamps. 

It has a conical shape and is 
much larger than the arbor vi- 
toe, reaching sometimes ninety 
feet. The wood is very valu- 
able, being soft but durable, and is used for shingles, 
posts, and boats. It has the property of enduring the 
changes such as posts or other structural members are 
obliged to withstand in contact with the soil, and ranks 
next to yellow locust in this particular. 

68. Red Cedar is the tree which supplies our lead 
pencils. It is remarkable for its straight, even grain, 




Fig. 129. Arbor Vitas 



THE EVERGREENS 



121 



and tlie ease with which it can be worked. This is the 
familiar tree of our roadside, where the birds who feast 
on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and 
unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future genera- 
tions by dropping the seeds on the ground. 




Fig. 130. Red Cedar growing along Roadside from Seed dropped by Birds 

The red cedar seems to grow where other trees can- 
not exist, but like other trees responds to good treat- 
ment and reaches its best development in the balmy 
and luxuriant South. 

It is found from Maine to Florida and from the 
Atlantic to the Pacific. In the North it rarely grows 



122 ELEMENTARY WOODWORKIXG 

over twenty feet high, and is of compact growth, but in 
Florida it reaches eiglity feet. 

The leaves are remarkable in that there are two 
shapes, the sharp or awl-shaped, and the scale-shaped, 
growing upon the same branch. 

The wood is vahialjle for many purposes and has been 
used so extensively that it is becoming scarce. 

Florida has furnished the world with red cedar for 
lead pencils for years, and it is said that during the 
Civil War, when the whole southern coast was block- 
aded, the European manufacturers were obliged to scour 
the world to find a substitute for the Florida cedar. 



CHAPTER XI 

THE BIG TREES 



Each section of country has its own pecuhar trees, 
and those described have been mainly representative 




Fig. 131. Big Trees scarred by Fire at the Base. 

California 



Redwood Meadow, 



of the eastern states; but no list of American trees 
would be complete without the "big trees," as they are 



123 




Fig. 132. Big Trees, "General Grant" and "General Sherman,' 
Calareras County, California 



124 



THE BIG TREES 



126 



commonly called, of California. The annual rings of 
these giants show them to be from two thousand to 
four thousand years old. 

It is hard to realize this great age. It means that 
for centuries and centuries before the white men came 
these kings of the forests looked down on generations 




Fig. 133. " General Grant," a Big Tree, Mariposa Grove, California 

and generations of Indian tribes. They may even have 
seen the coming of the first Indians. What wonderful 
tales they might relate if they could only talk ! 

On that fateful day over four hundred years ago, 
when the three little caravels of Columbus sighted the 




126 



THE BIG TREES 127 

West Indies, these hoary old trees were twenty-five hun- 
dred years old. They should be sacred to every Ameri- 
can, and not one should ever be cut down for lumber. 

There are two distinct kinds of big trees, the redwood 
and the so-called '' big trees," which are the largest trees 
in the world. They both Ijelong to the cone-bearing 
(coniferous) group, and the needles are only three quar- 
ters of an inch longr and the little cones an inch. 

o 

The wood is reddish, as the name implies, not unlike 
red cedar, but is softer and is used for many purposes 
on the Pacilic coast. 

The big trees are now cArefully guarded by the 
government. One grove alone which contains seven 
hundred of these fine trees, called the Mariposa Grove, 
has been reserved as a national park, and is watched 
carefully to keep out forest fires, etc. 

Many of the best known of these trees are given 
names. One is called '' Uncle Tom's Cabin," because of 
a peculiar opening at the base. 

The most famous perhaps is the ^^ Grizzly Giant.'' 
This one is ninety-three feet in circumference at the 
groimd, and its first branch is two hundred feet above 
the earth and eight feet in diameter. It is considered 
the largest tree in the world. 

We can get some idea of what these figures represent 
when we know that it takes five men tiiree weeks to 




128 



THE BIG TREES 



129 



cut one down, and that the cost of felling one of these 
monsters is five hundred dollars. 

A stump of one of these trees is so large that dances 
have been held on it, and on one very large one a ball- 
room has been built for this special purpose. 

As one Californian has said, " The redwood forests 
are apparently imperishable, except through the ax, as 
the trees are rarely injured by fire. The redwood is 
the only lumber that can take the place of the white 
pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany 
and black walnut, displace oak for railroad ties, cypress 
and cedar for shingles, and surpass all other woods for 
durability when in contact with the earth or when 
exposed to moisture." 




Fig. 136. Immense Flock of Sheep being herded illegally in a United States 
Government Forest Reservation. (They kill the young seedling trees) 



INDEX 



I'AGE 

Anniiul rings 59 

Ash. 92 

Aspen 107 

Band saw 58 

Basswood 103 

Beech 09 

Bench, care of 3 

Bench hook 15 

Bevel 10 

Big Trees of California . . 123 

Birches do 

Bit, auger 27 

auger, details of ... 28 

center 27 

countersink .... 29 

gimlet 29 

Black walnut 89 

Brace, common forms of. . 20 

and bit 27 

Bract of linden .... 105 

Buckeye 87 

Butternut 89 

Buttonwood 101 



Cap iron 
Cedar . 



17 
120 



PAGE 

Chisel, cutting angle of . . 23 

firmer 24 

framing 24 

methods of using . . 24 

sharpening 25 

Clamp iron of plane ... 18 
Compound leaves .... 85 
fe'ottonwood, or Carolina pop- 
lar 108 

Cutting tools 11 

Cypress 118 



l^ovetail. See Joint 
Drawing board . . 

Elm, American . 



45, 6i 



Evergreens ...... 


111 


Felling trees 


52 


Fir, balsam 


118 


Framing square .... 


8 


Gang saw 


55 


Glue, use of 


39 


Grain of wood 


59 


Groujis of tools 


4 


Gum, sweet, or liquid amber 


101 



94 



131 



132 



ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING 



PAGE 

Hammer, claw 31 

use of 32 

Handscrew, use of ... . 40 

Hemlock 115 

Hickory 87 

Honey locust 91 

Hornbeam 100 

Horse-chestnut 86 

Iron wood 100 

Joint, definition of . . . 39 

dovetail 47 

end lap 44 

middle lap 38 

miter 41 

Joint edge 37 

Jointers 21 

Laying out work .... 38 

Linden, or basswood . . . 103 

Locust 91 

Log boom 55 

Log jam 53 

Logs, redwood 126 

Lumbering and milling . . 51 

Mallet 33 

Maple, ash-leaved .... 82 

Japan 84 

Norway 78 

red ...... . 80 

silver 78 

striped 81 



Maple, sugar . . . 
sycamore . . 

Maple keys . . . 

Marking gauge . . 

Mechanical drawing 
of end lap joint 
of cylinder . . 

Medullary rays . . 

Miscellaneous tools 

Mortise, cutting a . 

Mulberry .... 



Nail set or punch . 

Nails, cut and wire 

method of using cut 
withdrawing . 



Oak, black and black 

chestnut 

live . . . 

mossy-cup . 

pin . . . 

post . . 

red . . 

scarlet . . 

white . . 
Oilstone, use of . 



■jack 



76 
80 
82 
8 
43 
44 
44 
59 
31 
34 
109 

32 

41 
41 



69 
74 
75 
68 
72 
67 
70 
71 
66 
25 



Pecan 89 

Perspective drawing and 
constructive drawing 

compared .... 43 

Pine, Georgia 114 

white 113 



INDEX 



133 



PAGE 

Pine, yellow 114 

Plan of work 4 

Plane 17 

adjustments on . . . 18 

block 21 

block, method of using 22 

jack 19 

smooth 20 

wooden 22 

Plane iron in action ... 17 

Poplars 106 

River driving 53 

Rule, use of 6 

Sandpaper, use of ... . 34 

Sassafras 108 

Saw, back 15 

circular 57 

method of holding . . 14 

turning 16 

Saw tapers 14 

Saw teeth, shape of ... 13 

Saw tooth action .... 11 

Sawtooth set 13 

Sawmill 55 



Saws 

Scale drawing . . 
Screw-driver .... 
Screws, varieties of, 

methods of using 
Sections of red oak 
Set screw of plane 
Shake in wood . 
Shrinkage . . 
Spokeshave . . 
Spruce .... 
Stock, squaring up 
Sycamore . 



and 



T square, use of 
Timber and lumber 
Trees, broad-leaved, or 

uous . . . 
Triangles, use of 
Try-square, use of . 
Tulip, or whitewood 



Warping . . 
Weather checks 
Willow . . 
Working face 



decid- 



11 
48 
33 

42 
70 
17 
60 
61 
29 

116 
36 

101 

45 

58 

65 

45 

6 

102 

61 

60 

106 

37 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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